Global Trends and Developments in Cutting-Edge Energy Technologies: A 2025 Perspective

The global energy system is undergoing profound transformations as the shift towards low-carbon and digitalization accelerates. In the context of international efforts to combat climate change and achieve carbon neutrality, the trend of “technology as a resource” has become increasingly evident. Countries around the world are prioritizing energy technology innovation at the national strategic level, actively investing in cutting-edge fields to secure a competitive advantage in development.

This report focuses on key areas such as renewable energy generation, hydrogen energy and storage, clean utilization of traditional energy, and emerging frontier technologies. It systematically reviews the latest advancements and trends in global energy technologies, analyzing innovation breakthroughs, maturity, and industrialization prospects from multiple dimensions. The goal is to dynamically grasp the strategic direction and evolution path of energy technology development, providing decision-making references for identifying future technological breakthroughs, optimizing technological layouts, and formulating innovation strategies.

1. New Landscape of Global Energy Technology Innovation Competition

The current global energy technology competition is characterized by multipolarity, high technology density, and intertwined geopolitical dynamics. Major economies are actively competing for technological leadership and future industrial positions through strategic guidance and substantial resource investment. China, the United States, and the European Union have emerged as the three core forces in global energy innovation, while countries like Japan and South Korea have established differentiated advantages in specific fields.

(1) Deep Adjustments in the Global Energy Innovation Landscape

The global energy innovation landscape is undergoing systemic transformation, with clean energy becoming the core area for investment and technological competition. According to the International Energy Agency, global energy investment is expected to reach $33 trillion by 2025, with clean energy investments accounting for nearly two-thirds, significantly surpassing fossil fuel-related investments. This shift highlights that the global focus on energy innovation is fully transitioning towards low-carbon technologies, with major economies competing for technological leadership through strategic planning and R&D investment.

In terms of regional competition, China, the United States, and the EU have become the three core forces in global energy innovation. According to a report from the Southern Power Grid Energy Research Institute, China’s R&D investment in the energy and power sector was the highest globally in 2024, establishing a full industrial chain advantage in areas such as photovoltaic manufacturing, new energy storage, and ultra-high voltage transmission. The U.S. focuses on the deep integration of artificial intelligence, big data, and energy systems, with private sector venture capital showing active performance and significant investment growth in 2024. The EU, relying on its “Green Deal” and supporting industrial plans, is promoting developments in hydrogen energy and offshore wind power, although it still faces challenges in coordinating R&D resources, supply chain independence, and industrial competitiveness.

Global energy technology innovation is showing a clear trend of multipolar development, with countries building differentiated competitive advantages in different sub-fields based on their resource endowments and technological foundations. However, issues such as tightening financing environments for clean energy companies, instability in the supply of critical mineral resources, and insufficient mutual recognition of technical standards continue to restrict the global application and industrialization of innovation results. In the future, there is a need to strengthen international cooperation and policy coordination to collectively address the technological and market challenges encountered during the energy transition.

(2) Significant Differences in Innovation Strategies and Resource Allocation among Major Countries

According to data from the International Energy Agency, global energy investment is expected to surpass $30 trillion in 2024 for the first time, with clean energy investments reaching $20 trillion, reflecting the overall trend of accelerated global energy transition. China has become the largest energy investor globally, with its changes in clean energy investment scale and structure having a profound impact on the global market. The “China Energy Ecology Report” indicates that China’s clean energy investment in 2024 reached approximately $625 billion, accounting for nearly one-third of global clean energy investment, thereby consolidating its position as a global leader in clean energy investment. China maintains a leading position globally in key areas such as photovoltaic manufacturing, wind power installations, and power batteries, having achieved its 2030 wind and solar installation targets six years ahead of schedule.

Meanwhile, the structure of China’s energy investment is becoming more diversified, with private capital rapidly flowing into renewable energy, energy storage, and energy internet sectors. Overseas investments are also increasingly focused on clean energy projects, promoting the development of global green industrial chains through international capacity cooperation. The United States has accelerated the deployment of clean energy through policies such as the Inflation Reduction Act. Clean energy investments in the U.S. are estimated to exceed $300 billion in 2024, marking 1.6 times the level of 2020. Of the new power generation capacity, non-carbon energy sources account for as much as 95%, with solar and battery storage leading the way. The U.S. development model emphasizes market-driven and private investment, particularly in frontier technology areas such as hydrogen energy, carbon management, and advanced nuclear energy.

The EU is promoting energy transition through policies such as the “Green Deal” and the “Innovation Fund.” The EU’s clean energy investment in 2024 is approximately $370 billion, with a significant shift in the energy structure, where renewable energy generation accounts for nearly half, reaching 47%. Notably, solar power generation has surpassed coal for the first time. The EU’s strategic focus is on offshore wind power, hydrogen energy, and carbon capture technologies, but it faces challenges in coordinating R&D resources, achieving policy alignment among member states, and upgrading grid infrastructure.

(3) Intensified Intellectual Property Competition in Key Technology Areas

Green low-carbon technologies have become a focal point in global intellectual property competition, with core patent positioning being crucial for market dominance. Data show that patent applications from China, Japan, the U.S., South Korea, and Germany account for nearly 90% of relevant fields. The competitive landscape of intellectual property in specific technical domains varies. In photovoltaic technology, TOPCon and N-type cell technologies have become hotspots for patent litigation. Statistics indicate that from 2024 to early 2025, there were 22 patent disputes involving Chinese photovoltaic companies, with leading firms such as Trina Solar, Jinko Solar, JA Solar, andLONGi Green Energy embroiled in multiple litigation cases across major photovoltaic markets including China, the U.S., Europe, Japan, and Australia.

In energy storage technology, patent activity remains highly active, with an annual growth rate between 15% and 20%. As of May 2025, the total number of global solid-state battery patent applications has surpassed 46,000. In terms of the distribution of technology source countries, Japan leads with a 37% share, while China follows closely with a 30% share, indicating a narrowing technological gap between the two. By the country of patent application, China has surpassed Japan to become the market with the most solid-state battery patents globally, accounting for about 35%. Overall, in the energy sector, China holds over 40% of global new energy patents, and its new energy storage scale ranks first in the world.

In the field of electric vehicle patents, as of November 2024, Japan’s Toyota leads with 6,135 patent applications, while South Korea’s Hyundai follows with 2,250 patents. Notably, Chinese companies have excelled in patent quality. According to data from Japan’s Mitsui & Co. Global Strategic Research Institute, CATL leads the industry with a technology impact score of 2.7, significantly higher than the industry average of 1.0, with Huawei, BYD, and other firms also ranking among the leaders.

(4) Profound Changes in the Global Energy Governance System

The global energy governance system is currently undergoing a critical phase of deep adjustment and reconstruction. Developed countries are actively employing new policy tools such as carbon border adjustment mechanisms (CBAM) to maintain their dominant positions in the global energy governance system, a trend that stands in stark contrast to the demands of developing countries for equitable transitions and collective development. In the field of technical standards, major economies continue to increase investments to promote the internationalization of their national standards. The EU, leveraging its first-mover advantage, continues to dominate standard-setting in renewable energy and energy efficiency; the U.S. reinforces its global technological influence by promoting technical standards for advanced nuclear energy, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS); while China actively promotes standard internationalization in areas such as ultra-high voltage transmission and photovoltaics, though it still needs to improve its comprehensive standard system.

The global energy governance mechanism exhibits clear fragmentation. Various regional energy cooperation organizations are thriving, promoting regional energy cooperation but also leading to inconsistencies in rules and standards. Strengthening coordination between different mechanisms has become a key challenge for enhancing the effectiveness of global energy governance. At the same time, geopolitical factors continue to exacerbate disruptions to energy technology cooperation. Some countries are politicizing energy technology cooperation by establishing exclusive technology alliances and implementing technology export controls, hindering the global optimal allocation of energy innovation resources and negatively impacting the global energy transition process.

2. Innovations in Renewable Energy Generation Technologies

Global renewable energy generation technologies are exhibiting a diversified innovation pattern. In the photovoltaic battery sector, various high-efficiency technological routes, including BC, TOPCon, HJT, and perovskite tandem cells, are developing in parallel, continuously driving industrial upgrades. Offshore wind power is accelerating towards larger capacities, lightweight designs, smart technology, and deep-sea applications. Concentrated solar power, leveraging its unique energy storage advantages, is forming differentiated development paths globally. Geothermal energy development is progressing towards increased efficiency, deeper exploration, and greater intelligence, with drilling technology and system optimization becoming focal points. In marine energy utilization, tidal energy technology has matured, tidal current energy is gradually being applied, while temperature difference energy, wave energy, and salinity gradient energy are still in various stages of research and demonstration.

(1) High-Efficiency Photovoltaic Cell Technology

Back-contact (BC) technology has emerged as a significant direction for high-efficiency industrialization. China’s LONGi Green Energy’s HPBC 2.0 technology has achieved full-scale production with a module conversion efficiency of 24.8% and a stable battery yield of over 97%. Its HIBC module production efficiency has further increased to 25.9%, with power output surpassing 700 watts. Laboratory developments have seen LONGi’s hybrid back-contact silicon solar cells reach an efficiency of 27.81%, while heterojunction back-contact silicon cells have achieved 27.52%, setting new world records. TOPCon technology remains one of the mainstream production routes. Since 2025, overseas expansion projects have been primarily driven by TOPCon, with new installation plans exceeding 10 GW in India and Turkey. France’s CARBON company plans to produce 5 GW of TOPCon batteries and 3.5 GW of module capacity by autumn 2025. Specialized battery manufacturer Enphase Energy has achieved production efficiency exceeding 27.1% and is the first to commercialize N-type xBC batteries. Progress in perovskite and tandem cell technologies has been rapid. A team from Hainan University in China has raised the efficiency of single-junction perovskite cells to 27.32%. LONGi’s full-area perovskite-silicon tandem cells have reached 32.98%, with Tongwei Group also investing in research and development in the perovskite/silicon tandem field. However, perovskite technology still faces challenges in stability and large-scale production, with module lifetimes only ranging from 3,000 to 5,000 hours, and significant efficiency loss when scaled up from laboratory settings.

(2) Advanced Offshore Wind Power Technology

In terms of turbine scale, efficient large-capacity units have become the industry mainstream. Onshore wind turbines have increased in capacity from the early 5-6 MW to over 15 MW, while offshore wind turbines continue to break capacity limits. In October 2024, China’s Dongfang Electric Group successfully developed a 26 MW offshore wind turbine, currently the largest single-unit capacity and longest rotor diameter in the world. In research and development, South Korea’s Gyeongsang National University identified optimal wind speed and blade pitch angle operating ranges through analyzing NREL IEA’s 15 MW large offshore turbine operational data; Dalian University of Technology in China proposed an innovative three-spring model, providing a more accurate method for evaluating lateral bearing capacity of large turbine monopile foundations. In deep-sea development, floating wind technology shows promising prospects. Although it is still in the early stages of commercialization, its engineering economics is gradually becoming evident, especially advantageous in waters deeper than 60 meters. South Korean researchers have developed a new five-legged suction bucket foundation structure, effectively enhancing the ultimate load-bearing capacity of floating turbines; a research team from Kangwon National University proposed a composite control algorithm that significantly reduces the load and motion response of a 15 MW semi-submersible floating wind turbine. Spanish researchers are focusing on evaluating the damping effect of heave plates and proposed an improved dimensionless model to assess design safety margins. In application, Norway’s Equinor’s Hywind Tampen project has become the first floating wind farm in the world to supply power to an offshore oil and gas platform, reducing carbon emissions by over 200,000 tons annually; France’s FloatGen project successfully deployed a 2 MW floating turbine in 33 meters of water depth using barge-based technology to provide stable power to 3,000 households. As turbine capacity continues to increase, lightweight structures are becoming an important development trend. Chinese research institutions have made several breakthroughs in this area, such as a team from Chongqing University developing a nanoporous polysiloxane polymer insulating material, which combines high insulation, hydrophobicity, and thermal stability, laying the foundation for upgrading materials for the next generation of turbines. In practical applications, China Shipbuilding Group has successfully tackled the challenges of wind energy development in low-wind-speed regions by integrating ultra-long blade lightweight designs, intelligent control, and high tower structures, achieving an annual equivalent utilization hour of 2,149 hours with its 24 intelligent units, reducing carbon emissions by about 320,000 tons annually.

(3) Concentrated Solar Power Technology

Europe, as the birthplace of concentrated solar power technology, continues to lead in technological innovation. Spain boasts the world’s largest operational concentrated solar power station cluster, with a total installed capacity of approximately 2.3 GW, accounting for about one-third of global total installed capacity. In recent years, Spain has planned to revive its concentrated solar power market, with its national energy and climate plan (PNEC) proposing to increase installed capacity to 4.8 GW by 2025 and further to 7.3 GW by 2030. Greece has seen significant growth in solar thermal utilization systems, with its total area reaching 5.7 million square meters in 2023, covering 38.1% of household hot water needs. The government has introduced a €223 million support plan to subsidize residential solar thermal systems. Cyprus is promoting innovative technology projects, with its 50 MW Eos concentrated solar power project utilizing graphite as the heat transfer and storage medium, marking the first commercial attempt of its kind globally, receiving €60.2 million in funding from the EU. In the U.S., the development of concentrated solar power is characterized by technology-driven innovation and large project applications. Early constructed solar power stations, such as Crescent Dunes, have accumulated valuable engineering practice and operational experience. Currently, the focus has shifted to the research and application of new-generation concentrated solar power technologies, particularly exploring the potential for diverse coupling scenarios in industrial heating and green hydrogen production. Thanks to its superior solar resource conditions, southwestern U.S. states have become core areas for concentrated solar power project deployments. Australia, leveraging its abundant solar resources, is actively promoting the scaled development of concentrated solar power technology. Currently, several large concentrated solar power projects are in planning and construction stages. The government has provided stable policy support for the concentrated solar power industry through mechanisms such as renewable energy targets (RET). Notably, Australia’s concentrated solar projects emphasize integrating industrial application scenarios, particularly in conjunction with energy-intensive industries like water treatment and mining, forming a regionally characteristic “concentrated solar power +” comprehensive utilization model, providing a unique path for its clean energy transition. From a global perspective, China’s concentrated solar power industry has achieved a leading pace and technological level. In August 2025, the 100 MW concentrated solar project in Golmud, Qinghai, contracted by China Power Construction, successfully achieved full-load power generation, utilizing tower-type concentrating technology and configured with a 12-hour molten salt storage system, generating up to 227 million kilowatt-hours annually. As of July 2025, China’s concentrated solar power installed capacity reached 1,400 MW, with an expected annual increase surpassing 1,800 MW. In terms of costs, the unit price of a 100 MW tower-type concentrated solar power plant has decreased from 29,770 yuan/kW to 16,209 yuan/kW, marking a 45.6% reduction. China has made significant innovations in the “concentrated solar power + photovoltaic” multi-energy complementarity model and occupies 58% of the global concentrated solar power supply chain through its manufacturing advantages.

(4) New Technologies in Geothermal Energy Development and Utilization

In drilling technologies, the U.S. Quaise Energy company has made significant breakthroughs with its microwave drilling technology. This technology employs a 2.45 GHz millimeter-wave generator to excite water molecules inside rocks, generating heat energy to achieve melting and fracturing of the rocks, significantly reducing drill bit wear. Experimental data show that this technology can penetrate 20 meters of granite in one hour using a 20-centimeter diameter waveguide device, achieving an efficiency three times that of traditional drilling rigs. According to the company’s plans, field testing in Texas is scheduled for 2025, with a goal of reaching a depth of 15,000 meters by 2026 and establishing the first 20,000-meter geothermal power plant by 2028. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are becoming an international research hotspot. The U.S. Department of Energy’s Frontier Observatory for Research in Geothermal Energy (FORGE) project has successfully constructed artificial thermal reservoirs in granite formations in Utah through hydraulic fracturing, significantly improving power generation efficiency. The German GeoLaB project is developing modular enhanced geothermal systems that enhance circulation efficiency to 25% by monitoring fracture dynamics with distributed fiber optics. Norway has improved drilling efficiency by using nano-material coated drill bits and supercritical carbon dioxide drilling fluids. China has made significant progress in deep geothermal exploration and development. Sinopec has successfully verified the accumulation mechanism of deep geothermal resources in southern China for the first time, establishing an evaluation method based on multi-scale geological modeling and numerical simulation technologies. The country also successfully drilled the deepest geothermal scientific well in Asia, the Fushen Hot 1 well, reaching a depth of 5,200 meters and encountering high-temperature geothermal resources exceeding 188 degrees Celsius. Key technologies developed include high-temperature wellbore working fluids, mixed tooth drill bits, and axial-torsion coupled impact rock-breaking processes. Integrated utilization models have significantly improved energy efficiency, with Turkey using geothermal power plant tailwater for regional heating and greenhouse cultivation, achieving an energy utilization rate of 85%. Iceland employs geothermal power plant tailwater for regional heating and spa therapy, significantly enhancing the economic value of the energy. The application of digital technologies in geothermal development is deepening. U.S. Bedrock Energy has improved geothermal construction efficiency in Colorado by over 50% using AI-driven underground modeling and intelligent drilling technologies. Research indicates that ground-source heat pump systems can achieve a maximum seasonal performance coefficient of 5.62, with an average of 4.86, potentially reducing annual CO2 emissions per household by 1,956 kilograms. The International Energy Agency predicts that by 2035, the costs of new-generation geothermal resource development technologies may drop by 80%, with new geothermal project power generation costs falling to about $50 per MWh. Cumulatively, investments in geothermal energy are expected to reach $1 trillion by 2035 and $2.5 trillion by 2050. China possesses the world’s second-largest potential for enhanced geothermal systems technology, with technically exploitable geothermal resources accounting for 8% of the global total, offering promising future development prospects.

(5) New Technologies in Marine Energy Development and Utilization

Countries are actively advancing marine energy technology research, with various technological routes at different stages of development. Tidal energy technology has matured, temperature difference energy technology is adequately developed but progressing relatively slowly, tidal current energy technology is gradually moving into stable application stages, while salinity gradient energy technology remains mainly at the laboratory research level, and wave energy technology has yet to form a unified technological route. In the tidal current energy sector, China’s Zhoushan megawatt tidal current power generation project has achieved stable operation for over eight years. According to the latest public data, the LHD marine tidal energy project has cumulatively generated over 7.83 million kilowatt-hours, all of which has been fully absorbed by the national grid, equivalent to saving 3,132 tons of standard coal and reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 7,811 tons. In the wave energy sector, over 200 concepts of power generation devices are under development globally, with major technical types including oscillating water column, oscillating buoy, and overtopping devices. China has successfully developed various wave energy devices based on different oscillating body structures, such as duck-type, eagle-type, and pendulum-type devices. The U.S. is sponsoring multiple marine energy projects through the TEAMER program, focusing on key technological aspects such as wave energy converter mooring system design and hydrodynamic performance testing.

In terms of cost-effectiveness, as technologies mature and the commercialization process accelerates, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for marine energy generation is showing a continuous downward trend. The International Energy Agency’s Ocean Energy Systems Technology Cooperation Program (IEA-OES) predicts that global tidal energy installed capacity is expected to reach 180 million kilowatts, and if the average annual cost decline rate remains at 12.5%, parity grid connection may be achieved around 2049. Research from the UK shows that when the total installed capacity of wave and tidal energy reaches 2.6 million kilowatts, the LCOE can be reduced to $0.114 per kilowatt-hour. The International Renewable Energy Agency predicts that by 2030, tidal energy LCOE will drop to $0.11 per kilowatt-hour, significantly enhancing its economic viability. In application areas, marine energy is accelerating its integration with offshore wind power, seawater aquaculture, and coastal protection industries. To overcome the limitations of low output power, poor economics, and instability associated with single marine energy generation, multi-marine energy complementary generation has become a key development direction for island power supply. Low-power marine energy devices have already been commercialized in areas such as navigation channels and marine observation buoys. For example, a hybrid wind-tidal energy system developed by a Swedish company can provide continuous and reliable power supply to offshore buoys even in harsh sea conditions.

3. Key Technologies for Power System Transformation

The global transmission sector is rapidly developing advanced transmission technologies, smart microgrid management, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) interaction to address the challenges posed by large-scale renewable energy integration and long-distance transmission. In the future, microgrid technology will evolve towards full-process intelligence, optimizing energy scheduling and trading models through the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, and blockchain technologies. The V2G technology is gradually becoming an important support for flexibility adjustment in new power systems.

(1) Advanced Transmission Technologies

In the field of ultra-high voltage technology, China plans to put into operation the Longdong-Shandong ±800 kV ultra-high voltage direct current project by 2025, utilizing the “double 800” ultra-high voltage direct current transmission technology with a rated voltage of ±800 kV and a rated capacity of 8 million kilowatts. The transmission distance is 915 kilometers, with a total investment of 20.2 billion yuan. Saudi Arabia’s Central-South ±500 kV flexible direct current transmission project, a key project of Saudi Vision 2030, has a transmission capacity of 7 million kilowatts, capable of meeting the electricity needs of approximately 13 million people, showcasing the advancements in flexible direct current transmission technology through a hybrid bridge topology structure. In terms of environmentally friendly equipment, China’s first 500 kV vegetable oil transformer, set to be operational by 2025, employs natural ester insulating oil, potentially reducing carbon emissions by 72.8 tons and noise by nearly 30%, with the insulating oil being entirely biodegradable. The BKD-320000/1100-145 ultra-high voltage reactor developed by Wujiang Transformer Co., Ltd. has noise levels controlled at 61.6 dB(A) and a bottom amplitude of only 5 microns, breaking through the technical bottleneck of vibration reduction and noise control for large-capacity equipment. Superconducting transmission technology has achieved engineering breakthroughs, with the U.S. VEIR company utilizing high-temperature superconducting tapes and a passive nitrogen cooling system to achieve a transmission current of 4,000 amperes, with a capacity of 400 megawatts, enhancing transmission capacity by 5 to 10 times compared to traditional lines. The kilometer-level superconducting cable demonstration project at the Baoshan Substation in Shanghai has a transmission capacity of 2,200 amperes, making it the world’s first superconducting line integrated into an urban power grid.

Digitalization and intelligence are empowering the transmission system. The U.S. Pacific Gas and Electric Company has applied a digital twin platform to achieve real-time monitoring and lifespan prediction for transmission lines, reducing maintenance costs by approximately 15%. Zoomlion’s new energy tensioning equipment replaces fuel-driven systems with electric drives, achieving zero emissions during construction, reducing noise by 20% to 30%, and improving operational efficiency by over 10%. However, investments and supply chains for power grids face new challenges. In 2023, global investments in transmission grew by 10% to reach $140 billion, yet investment distribution remains regionally imbalanced, with developed economies and China accounting for 80% of the total. The International Energy Agency reports that procurement cycles for critical equipment such as cables and transformers have significantly lengthened, with cables taking two to three years and large power transformers taking four years, with prices rising approximately 100% and 75% respectively since 2019.

(2) Microgrid Management

Global microgrid technology is accelerating its evolution from a single power supply model to intelligent and diversified solutions, becoming a key solution for integrating distributed energy and enhancing grid resilience. Research indicates that the global microgrid market size is expected to reach approximately $37.5 billion in 2024, with an anticipated compound annual growth rate of 18.6% from 2025 to 2029. Microgrids can flexibly and efficiently integrate renewable energy sources like solar and wind to optimize energy structures and achieve self-sufficiency, thereby providing stable power supplies to residential areas, commercial districts, industrial parks, and remote regions. The technological innovations in smart microgrids are primarily reflected in intelligent control algorithms and system integration. Artificial intelligence algorithms are deeply applied in energy management; for instance, a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) strategy based on artificial neural networks enhances the efficiency of wind turbines and photovoltaic systems, maximizing energy utilization while reducing reliance on additional sensors. Digital twin technology achieves real-time monitoring and lifespan prediction for equipment, with some projects seeing maintenance costs reduced by about 15%. The Taikai Industrial Park project in China, as Shandong province’s first large-scale application of “solar-storage-direct-flexible” technology, integrates energy routers, flexible interconnection devices, and intelligent control technologies, achieving a 100% local utilization rate of green electricity and saving over 5 million yuan in electricity costs while reducing CO2 emissions by over 9,300 tons.

The application scenarios for microgrids are showing a trend of diversification. Microgrids are suitable for corporate office buildings, industrial parks, and commercial complexes. The industrial sector has become an important scene for the large-scale application of microgrids due to its stable electricity demand, strong willingness to reduce costs, and implementation feasibility. In remote areas, microgrid systems have solved the challenges of extending power grids. The World Bank reports that globally, 48 million people have accessed electricity through 21,500 microgrids, half of which are solar photovoltaic microgrids. The trend of declining costs is significant, with economic viability continuously improving. Over the past decade, microgrid costs have steadily decreased. In Africa and Asia, the investment cost for microgrids has fallen from over $8,000 per kilowatt of stable power output in 2010 to the current $3,660 per kilowatt, with an LCOE of about $0.38 per kilowatt-hour. By 2030, the upfront investment cost for solar + hybrid microgrids is expected to drop to $2,500 per kilowatt, with an LCOE projected to decline to $0.20 per kilowatt-hour.

(3) Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology

In recent years, V2G technology has gradually transitioned from experimental demonstrations to large-scale applications, becoming a vital pathway for enhancing grid flexibility and facilitating renewable energy consumption. Despite long-standing concerns among users regarding battery degradation due to frequent charging and discharging, recent research findings offer breakthrough solutions to this issue. In 2025, a team led by Academician Ouyang Minggao at Tsinghua University published significant research in the Journal of Energy Storage, proposing a battery control strategy based on bidirectional pulse current (BPC). This strategy can apply specific frequencies and intensities of pulse current during vehicle idle times (typically over 80%), effectively adjusting the internal electrochemical state of the battery, inhibiting excessive growth of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film and lithium-ion stock losses. Experimental results show that batteries utilizing the BPC strategy not only provide V2G frequency modulation services but also extend calendar life by 9.03% and significantly enhance cycle life by 98.7%. This fundamentally alleviates user concerns regarding battery lifespan and transforms V2G from a “necessary cost” into a “value-added service,” providing critical scientific evidence for the large-scale promotion of the technology.

The core supporting technology of V2G systems is also experiencing continuous breakthroughs. High-performance bidirectional charging and discharging devices have achieved large-scale applications, with charging pile power ranges covering from 7 kW to 350 kW, meeting diverse needs from private cars to heavy commercial vehicles and featuring millisecond response capabilities to support grid frequency regulation. Smart aggregation platforms utilize cloud computing and artificial intelligence algorithms to achieve coordinated control of distributed electric vehicle resources. Improving market incentive mechanisms is a key prerequisite for the commercialization of V2G technology. Currently, multiple provinces in China have launched peak and valley pricing and discharge compensation pilot projects. For instance, Jiangsu province has implemented a peak discharge pricing mechanism, where users receive about 0.85 yuan for each kilowatt-hour of power returned to the grid. In cities like Wuhan and Shenzhen, “virtual power plant” platforms aggregate private cars, buses, and logistics fleets to participate in grid demand response, with users’ annual earnings covering over 30% of their everyday charging costs. Looking ahead, V2G technology will not only serve as a grid adjustment tool but will also evolve into an indispensable resource for flexibility in new power systems. With advancements in battery technology, improved market mechanisms, and enhanced standardization, research indicates that V2G is expected to achieve integrated applications with capacities in the tens of millions of kilowatts after 2030, providing core support for constructing a clean, low-carbon, and efficient energy system.

4. Hydrogen Energy and Storage Technologies Across the Entire Industry Chain

Hydrogen energy and storage technologies are key supports for the global energy transition. In the hydrogen energy sector, green hydrogen technology focuses on electrolysis for hydrogen production and efficient storage and transportation, promoting the clean and large-scale application of hydrogen energy. In storage, electrochemical storage has become the most widely used new storage method globally due to its flexible power and capacity configurations; meanwhile, technologies such as compressed air, flywheels, and gravity storage are also advancing, demonstrating complementary advantages and good prospects in various application scenarios.

(1) Green Hydrogen Technology

1. Electrolysis for Hydrogen Production

Alkaline electrolysis (ALK) technology, with its high maturity and low cost, is currently the most widely commercially applied electrolysis technology. Analysis indicates that by 2024, the price of ALK electrolyzers will drop to 1,203 yuan per kW, a 12% decrease from 2023. China holds nearly 70% of global production capacity in this field, with the China Energy Construction’s integrated green hydrogen and ammonia project in Songyuan utilizing 320 MW alkaline electrolyzers and a total investment of 29.6 billion yuan. On the technology front, the DGL Group has introduced a 5,000 standard cubic meter/hour electrolyzer with a maximum current density of 10,600 A/m² and an energy consumption of 4.7 kWh/standard cubic meter, with the minimum operating load of the electrolyzer reduced to 10% while maintaining oxygen content in the hydrogen below 1.5% in this state. The Pary Hydrogen Energy’s 3,000 standard cubic meter/hour alkaline electrolyzer has improved operational current density by 17%, reduced weight by 13%, and achieved a dynamic adjustment range of 30% to 110%. A team from Nankai University has developed a new alkaline hydrogen production electrocatalyst, allowing the electrolyzer to operate stably at a current density of 10,000 A/m² for 1,000 hours without performance degradation.

2. Storage and Transportation Technology

High-pressure gaseous storage and transportation technology remains the most mature and widely used technology, with countries promoting increases in pressure levels and capacity. China has the capability to manufacture hydrogen transport vehicles capable of handling pressures of 20-30 MPa, with a single vehicle transporting 627 kilograms of hydrogen and 90 MPa storage cylinders being developed for stations. Internationally, small-scale use of 50 MPa IV type bundled cabinets is underway, with a single vehicle’s hydrogen transport capacity reaching 1,350 kilograms, and it is expected that China will complete the development of 50 MPa and above pressure cylinders before 2030. In the field of onboard hydrogen storage, China’s 35 MPa III type cylinders have been commercialized, while 70 MPa IV type cylinders are in the demonstration phase, focusing on domestic production of liner materials and sealing technology. U.S. StellarJet has developed solid-state hydrogen tanks utilizing metal hydride technology, achieving a weight-based hydrogen storage density of 23% and an energy density of 6.6 kWh/kg, suitable for aviation applications.

(2) New Storage Technologies

1. Electrochemical Storage

Lithium-ion battery storage currently dominates new storage installations, with a market share exceeding 90%. The global scale of lithium-ion battery storage has surpassed the hundred-megawatt level, with China successfully commissioning multiple hundred-megawatt lithium-ion battery storage projects in Shandong, Ningxia, Hunan, and Hubei, providing vital practical cases for the global storage industry’s development. In terms of technological innovation, ongoing research on cathode materials has led to the emergence of new high-pressure lithium cobalt oxide, manganese-based cathodes, and high-nickel ternary materials, significantly improving material performance through modification and surface coating processes. Meanwhile, explorations into new coating materials such as two-dimensional materials and metal-organic frameworks are continuing. In anode materials, the industry is upgrading from graphite materials to silicon-based materials, with silicon-carbon composite materials achieving mass production and a capacity of 450 mAh/g. However, the expansion and contraction issues associated with silicon-based anodes still require ongoing material modification efforts. In the electrolyte and separator technology fields, organic liquid electrolytes are being continuously optimized for performance, while polyolefin separators have become the mainstream market choice due to their excellent properties, with wet-type separators being the current primary technological direction and coated separators representing the future development trend.

2. Mechanical Storage

Compressed air energy storage technology converts energy through the compression and expansion of air, featuring large storage capacity, short construction cycles, long operational lifespans, and environmental friendliness. This technology can maintain storage durations of over 4 hours, with a lifespan exceeding thirty years, and system efficiency ranges from 50% to 70%. The Huntorf power station in Germany and the McIntosh power station in the U.S. are among the earliest commercial compressed air energy storage projects, using traditional regenerative technologies with actual operating efficiencies of 42% and 54%, respectively. Currently, new types of technologies such as adiabatic, isothermal, liquid, and supercritical compressed air energy storage are being demonstrated in China. Among these, adiabatic compressed